[1] Although successful curative hepatectomy has significantly improved survival, the prognosis of HCC remains poor owing to tumor invasiveness, frequent intrahepatic spread, and extrahepatic metastasis. The molecular mechanism of HCC invasiveness and metastasis is ill-defined and its elucidation is fundamental to the improvement of HCC prognosis and treatment. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process in which epithelial cells lose polarity and cell–cell adhesion, and are converted to a mesenchymal phenotype.

The molecular hallmarks during EMT include down-regulation of epithelial markers (e.g., E-cadherin) and up-regulation of mesenchymal markers (e.g., vimentin).[2] EMT has a crucial role in the progression and metastasis of multiple cancers including HCC.[3, 4] EMT JQ1 in vivo is triggered and controlled by signals

cancer cells receive from their microenvironment. One of the major EMT triggers in cancers is the signaling through hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1), activated via hypoxia-dependent or hypoxia-independent Selleckchem LY294002 pathways.[5, 6] Enhanced HIF-1 activities have been reported to promote angiogenesis and invasiveness in HCC.[7, 8] HIF-1 is composed of a hypoxia-inducible α subunit (HIF-1α) and a constitutively expressing β subunit (HIF-1β). HIF-1α is rapidly degraded under normoxic conditions.[5] During this process, HIF-1α is hydroxylated by prolyl hydroxylase domain proteins

(PHDs) at two proline residues (P402 and P564) and subsequently interacts with the E3 ubiquitin ligase von Hippel-Lindau protein (VHL). Acetylation at K532 by ARD1 favors the interaction of HIF-1α with VHL and is coordinated with prolyl hydroxylation and ubiquitination,[9] leading to proteasomal degradation of HIF-1α. 上海皓元 Under hypoxia conditions, the activities of PHDs are inhibited and HIF-1α acetylation can be prevented by histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1).[10] Consequently, HIF-1α is stabilized, translocates to the nucleus, heterodimerizes with HIF-1β, and activates the expression of a broad range of genes including essential regulators for EMT.[11, 12] The homeobox protein PROX1 is crucial for the development of multiple organs and tissues.[13] Gene knockout analysis in mice indicates that PROX1 is required for hepatocyte migration during embryonic liver development.[14] The role of PROX1 in cancer development has been studied in several cancers. A positive correlation is present between PROX1 protein expression and the malignancy grades of gliomas.[15] High PROX1 protein expression is also associated with poor clinical outcomes of colon cancer.[16] PROX1 is thought not to be responsible for the initiation of colon cancer but rather promotes cancer progression from benign to highly dysplastic phenotype.[17] The connection between PROX1 and HCC is rather obscure. Shimoda et al.