16 However, the effects of these changes on immune learn more function outside the reproductive tract are largely unknown. It is attractive to hypothesize that some of these effects are designed to counter-balance progesterone-induced immunosuppression so as not put the dam at greater risk for infection on top of the stresses of pregnancy. Unfortunately, there are no reports of global gene expression profiling experiments for CG-stimulated immune cells that might provide clues to additional similarities between conceptus-immune signaling in ruminants

and humans. Clearly much more work is needed to define these effects, especially in light of the fact that the majority of embryo loss occurs during this period of early pregnancy and prior to development of a fully functioning placenta.3 Thanks are extended to Dr. Peter Hansen who helped crystallize some of the concepts presented in this review,

to the reviewers for their helpful suggestions and to Ms. Melanie Boretsky for her help preparing this manuscript. “
“B cells are an important part of both innate and adaptive immune system. Their ability to produce antibodies, cytokines and to present antigen makes them a crucial part in defence against pathogens. In this study, we have in naïve Naval Medical Research Institute mice functionally characterized a subpopulation of splenic B cells expressing CD25, which Autophagy activator comprise about 1% of the total B cell compartment. Murine spleen cells were sorted into two highly purified B cell populations either CD19+ CD25+ or CD19+ CD25−. We found that CD25+ B cells secreted higher levels of IL-6, IL-10 and INFγ in response to different TLR-agonists, and were better at presenting alloantigen to CD4+ T cells. CD25 expressing B cells spontaneously secreted immunoglobulins of IgA, IgG and IgM subclass and had better migratory ability when compared with CD25− B cells. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that CD25+ B cells

are highly activated and functionally mature. Therefore, we suggest that this population plays a major role in the immune system and may belong to the memory B-cell population. CD25 or IL-2Rα is well known as a T-cell marker indicating either an activated or regulatory phenotype [1]. Pyruvate dehydrogenase lipoamide kinase isozyme 1 We have earlier shown that the B-cell subset expressing CD25 has a unique phenotype both in mice [2] and in humans [3]. In humans, CD25+ B cells seem to belong to the memory B-cell subset [4], while the function of the this subpopulation in mice is largely unknown. CD25 (IL-2Rα) together with CD122 (IL-2Rβ) and CD132 (IL-2Rγ) forms the high-affinity receptor for IL-2 on both B and T cells [5, 6] generating intracellular signals after binding to its ligand. CD25 can also be expressed on its own on the same cell populations and bind IL-2, but in this setting no intracellular signalling is generated [5, 6].