Monocyte preparations were routinely stained with anti-CD14 antibody (Becton Dickinson, Oxford, UK) followed by flow cytometric analysis to verify purity. 1 × 106 monocytes were incubated with CRLP (30 μg cholesterol/ml) (or a similar volume of control preparation), and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Cells were adhered to microscope slides by cytospin (Shandon, ThermoFisher Basingstoke, UK), and stained with Oil Red O as described previously [14]. Images were captured using a microscope mounted Canon digital camera and the extent of staining analysed Image J analysis software

(NIH). Monocytes were loaded with dihydrorhodamine-1,2,3 (final concentration 100 μM) for 10 min at room temperature and seeded Vorinostat chemical structure onto white opaque 96 well tissue culture plates (2.5 × 104 labelled monocytes/well). Pharmacological inhibitors were added for 10 min at see more 37 °C prior to addition of CRLP (7.5–30 μg/ml cholesterol) or a similar volume of control preparation. Plates were incubated

at 37 °C for up to 24 h in 5% CO2 and fluorescence was measured, using a Wallac1410 fluorescent microtitre plate reader (Perkin Elmer, Beaconsfield, UK). Monocytes were seeded at 5 × 105 cells/well in 24 well tissue culture plates and CRLP (30 μg/ml cholesterol) or a similar volume of control preparation was added. Cells were exposed to pharmacological inhibitors for 10 min at 37 °C before addition of CRLP. After incubation at 37 °C for 6 or 24 h, cells

were pelleted and the supernatants collected, snap frozen and stored Sorafenib purchase at −80 °C until analysis using ELISA Duoset assay kits according to the manufacturer’s instructions (R&D Systems, Oxford, UK). Monocytes were seeded at in 24 well tissue culture plates (5 × 105 cells/well) and exposed to CRLP (30 μg cholesterol/ml) or a similar volume of control preparation for 24 h, then transferred to the upper chamber of Transwell plates in conditioned medium. RPMI supplemented with 10% FBS (600 μl) was placed in the lower Transwell chambers and recombinant human MCP-1 (CCL2) (10 ng/ml; R&D Systems) was added to lower and/or upper chambers. The plates were incubated for 4 h and the number of cells that had migrated into the lower chamber after this time were counted by flow cytometry (Beckman Coulter, Oxford UK). Two way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni’s multiple comparison test was used to analyse ROS production and the effects of pharmacological inhibitors on cytokine production, and one way ANOVA followed by the Tukey Kramer multiple comparison test was used for all other data, except where indicated otherwise. Incubation of isolated monocytes with CRLP for 24 h resulted in increased intracellular accumulation of lipid as assessed by Oil Red O staining (Figure 1A).