The considerable morbidity associated with CINV has prompted prophylactic treatment with serotonin antagonists, corticosteroids, dopamine antagonists, and neurokinin-1 inhibitors to become commonplace AZD9291 nmr in clinical practice. Unfortunately, approximately 75% of human breast cancer patients still report some symptoms of delayed-type CINV when treated with doxorubicin-containing chemotherapy protocols [4] and [5]. Acute

CINV due to doxorubicin administration is also common in human patients but is less frequent than the delayed type [5]. CINV has been reported in 30% to 40% of dogs receiving doxorubicin but is almost exclusively comprised of the delayed type, with one study reporting 91% of all vomiting occurring after 48 hours [6]. Although doxorubicin is classified as a non–cell cycle–specific agent, experimental studies have determined

that selective lethal cellular see more toxicity occurs when cells are in S-phase, whereas cells in G1 appear to be least sensitive [7], [8] and [9]. Interestingly, animal studies have determined that proliferative activity of gastrointestinal cells is subject to circadian fluctuation that is largely driven by patterns of food consumption [10]. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that fasting can dramatically reduce gastrointestinal cellular proliferation rates through G1 cycle blockade, and refeeding of mice after a period of fasting results in peak levels of S cellularity that can exceed four times those of fasted mice [11]. Proliferative activity begins to decrease within 24 hours of initiating fasting, and after refeeding, maximum proliferation usually exceeds baseline in most tissues of the gastrointestinal tract within 24 hours [10] and [11]. Taken together, these data provide

evidence that patterns of food consumption around the time of chemotherapy administration could contribute to delayed-type CINV in clinical cancer patients. Fasting has also been shown to increase cellular resistance to stress, selleck kinase inhibitor inducing a protective effect on normal cells [12] and [13]. This protection is believed to be mediated by reduced insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling and decreased activity of downstream effectors such as Akt, Ras, and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) [12]. In normal cells, this results in changes in gene expression and promotes resistance to oxidative stress, thought to be one of the major mechanisms of cytotoxicity caused by doxorubicin [14], [15] and [16]. In contrast, it appears that the cancer cell’s inability to adapt to reduced nutrients results in increased oxidative stress and cell death [17]. Therefore, fasting-induced reduction in IGF-1 not only mediates the protective effects on normal cells in vivo but is also implicated in the chemotherapy sensitization of cancer cells [17] and [18].