This discrepancy may be because Savolitinib ic50 while the CFLRI results were based on parental reports, children involved in the current study self-reported their participation. The results are also consistent with previous findings that children involved in organized sport are more likely to be physically active than non-participating peers [22, 23]. The

PA score averages of 2.9 and 3.3 for non-sport and sport groups, respectively are similar to those reported in grade 4, 5 and 6 students in the United Kingdom [24] and 9–18 year olds in Canada [25]. Dietary measures The healthier diet profile observed in the sport group was consistent with previous research on adolescent athletes who, on average, consumed significantly more health promoting foods such as milk and fruit [3, 4, 26] and, for

boys, more vegetables as well [26]. The sport group had higher caloric intake, consuming more fruit, vegetables, fibre and non-flavoured milk than the non-sport group. Even so, less than 50% of the children in sport and non-sport groups met recommended guidelines for fruits and vegetables and the sport group consumed more fat. While these results support the notion that sport-involved children have healthier diets, clearly the diets of both groups have room for improvement. SSB consumption by both sport and non-sport children in the study was slightly lower than the 450–534 g reported for 9–13 y olds in the CCHS [27]. click here As well, unlike other reports on adolescents, no differences in Niclosamide SSB or sports drink consumption was observed between those who were and were not involved in organized sport. Ranjit and colleagues noted a positive association between sports drink

consumption and participation in organized physical activity and a negative association between soda consumption and organized activity in adolescents [10]. In other research, athletic adolescents were more likely to consume sports drinks than non-athletic adolescents [3]. It is possible that the younger cohort in the current study was not yet influenced by coaches and the media, or was not involved in high intensity training and sport competition (back-to-back training, multiple games or selleck chemicals tournament play). It may also be that the younger students lacked the purchasing power of the older adolescents. Strengths and limitations One novel element of the study was that, to our knowledge, it is the first examination of sports drink consumption in this age group. A strength of the study was the relatively large sample size (n = 1421) of similar aged children. Also, two different instruments were used to assess diet and even though the dietary recall measured volume and the FFQ measured frequency, both instruments showed similar trends. We also acknowledge that a cross-sectional study has a number of limitations.

The glucuronides are thought to be cleared renally unchanged, LCZ696 ic50 and are thus relevant when considering the impact of renal function on total active drug exposure following the administration of dabigatran etexilate [15]. We chose to evaluate total active drug concentrations by using the HTI time.

Alternative methods of such SCH772984 cost evaluation include the indirect measurement of the dabigatran glucuronides by alkalinisation of plasma samples to hydrolyse the glucuronides from dabigatran [7, 12, 15, 16, 56, 57], or using a calibrated HTI assay that determines total dabigatran concentrations [47]. However, concerns have been expressed in the literature regarding the validity of the alkalinisation method, and a detailed description of this method is yet to be published [54]. Further, the accuracy of the calibrated HTI assay exceeds FDA bioanalytical quality limits at total dabigatran concentrations ≤50 µg/L [47, 58]. As the 10th to 90th percentile of trough total IDO inhibitor dabigatran concentrations have been reported to be around 40–220 µg/L

in patients given dabigatran etexilate 150 mg twice daily, we considered the calibrated HTI assay to be unsuitable for this study [14]. Instead, we used the HTI time as a gauge of total dabigatran concentrations for comparison with our measured dabigatran concentrations. The high R 2 of 0.90 between the trough HTI times and our measured trough plasma dabigatran concentrations is consistent with the notion that the latter were highly representative of the total concentration of thrombin inhibitors. Therefore, we expect that the results of the correlation analyses performed in this study would be similar if the dabigatran glucuronide concentrations were included in the models. To this end, we repeated the analyses of the four renal function Liothyronine Sodium equations, using the trough HTI times instead of the dabigatrantrough. A multiple linear regression model for the z-scores of the log-transformed trough HTI times was constructed. This included the

same covariates as those used in the dabigatrantrough model, with the addition of dabigatran etexilate maintenance dose rates as a scalar covariate. This regression model had an unadjusted R 2 of 0.17 for the z-scores of the log-transformed trough HTI times. The R 2 values of the four renal function equations for the standardised residuals of the regression model are presented in Supplementary Table 4 (ESM). All the 95 % CI of the correlation coefficients overlapped (p = 0.49), with the highest R 2 value being associated with the CKD-EPI_CrCys equation. When this equation was added into the multiple linear regression model, the unadjusted R 2 was 0.53 for the z-scores of the log-transformed trough HTI times (Supplementary Table 5, ESM).

Western blot analysis revealed that MCL1 was decreased in both concentration- and time-dependent manners after PTL exposure, while PMAIP1 was up-regulated (Figure 4A, B). Gene silencing experiment presented that when PMAIP1 was knocked down, the expression of MCL1 was partially increased and the cleavage of pro-caspases and PARP1 Savolitinib purchase induced by PTL were reduced (Figure 4C). Annexin V staining analysis showed that apoptosis induced by PTL was weakened after knocking down of PMAIP1 (Figure 4D, E). It could be concluded

that the intrinsic apoptosis process induced by PTL is through PMAIP1 and MCL1 axis. Figure 4 Parthenolide induces intrinsic apoptosis through up-regulating PMAIP1 VX-689 expression and down-regulating MCL1 level in Selleckchem AMN-107 a dose-dependent (A) and a time-dependent (B) manner, and knockdown of TNFRSF10B by siRNA decreases parthenolide–induced apoptosis (C, D and E). The indicated cells were treated with indicated concentrations of PTL for 24 hrs (A) or treated with 20 μmol/L PTL for various lengths of time and harvested for Western blot analysis (B). A549 (C, D) and H1299 (C, E) cells were seeded in 6-well plates and on the second day transfected with control or PMAIP1 siRNA. A549 cells were treated with 20 μmol/L

PTL while H1299 cells with 10 μmol/L for 24 hours after 48hs of transfection and harvested for Western blot analysis (C) or for detection of apoptotic cells using Annexin V/PI staining (D, E). Points:mean of three replicate determinations; bars: S.D. P value < 0.05. Parthenolide induces apoptosis through activation of ER stress response DDIT3, which is a target protein of ATF4, is reported to regulate the expression of TNFRSF10B and PMAIP1 by binding to their promoter sites [27]. Therefore, we wonder if PTL induces TNFRSF10B and PMAIP1 through mafosfamide ATF4-DDIT3 axis. We examined expression of ATF4 and DDIT3 after PTL treatment. Western blot revealed that PTL could up-regulate ATF4 and DDIT3 in both concentration- and time-dependent manner (Figure 5A, B). When ATF4 was knocked down, DDIT3 was decreased,

and activation of pro-caspases was weakened at the same time compared with control knockdown cells (Figure 5C). In addition, apoptosis was suppressed when DDIT3 was knocked down, while the expression of TNFRSF10B and PMAIP1 were decreased simultaneously (Figure 5D). Since ATF4 and DDIT3 are important hallmarks involved in ER stress pathway, we examined the expression of other molecules in ER stress signaling such as ERN1, HSPA5 and p-EIF2A as well [39]. We found that they were both increased after PTL treatment (Figure 6A, B). All these data indicated that PTL induces apoptosis through activation of ER stress response. Figure 5 Parthenolide induces apoptosis through up-regulating ATF4 and DDIT3 in a dose-dependent (A) and a time-dependent (B) manner, and knockdown of ATF4 by siRNA decreases parthenolide–induced DDIT3 and apoptosis (C).

With a willingness to pay of 2,500 Euro, these percentages would be 90% and ∼50%, respectively, for malnourished and well-nourished patients. Fig. 3 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curve presenting the probability that the nutritional intervention is cost-effective (y-axis), given various ceiling ratios for Etomoxir molecular weight willingness to pay (x-axis) with respect to weight increase. Sensitivity analyses performed for age groups and nutritional status at baseline, according to the Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) With respect to QALYs, if the nutritional

intervention was targeted to selleck inhibitor patients aged between 55 and 74 years, with a willingness to pay of 20,000 Euro, the probability that the intervention was cost-effective

was 85%, compared with only 26% in patients aged 75 years and above (Fig. 4). If the willingness to pay is 80,000 Euro for one QALY, the probability for the nutritional intervention to be cost-effective in the younger group increases to 98% while, in the older group, the probability remains the same. As also shown in Fig. 4, at a willingness to pay 20,000 Euro for one QALY, the probability that the nutritional intervention was cost-effective were 20% in malnourished patients and ∼25% in well-nourished patients. EPZ015666 With increasing willingness to pay, the probability that the intervention was cost-effective remained similar in malnourished patients whereas, in well-nourished patients, the probability that intervention was cost-effective increased up to ∼60% at a willingness to pay 80,000 Euro. Fig. 4 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curve presenting the probability that the nutritional intervention is cost-effective (y-axis), given various ceiling ratios for willingness to pay (x-axis) with respect to QALY. Sensitivity analyses performed for age groups and Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II nutritional status at baseline, according to the Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) Discussion Nutritional intervention in elderly hip fracture patients has been proposed as an approach to improve clinical outcome. Despite several decades of research, the overall evidence for the effectiveness

of ONS in elderly hip fracture patients with respect to length of stay and functional outcome is limited [42], and no thorough economic evaluation of nutritional intervention in elderly subjects after hip fracture has been performed so far. In the present study, we assessed the cost-effectiveness of an intensive nutritional intervention combining frequent dietetic counseling and ONS for 3 months postoperatively in elderly hip fracture patients. Results showed that the direct costs of the nutritional intervention were low—613 Euro per treated patient. Total health care costs, patient and family costs, as well as subcategories of these costs were similar in the intervention and control group.

Ecology 70:783–786CrossRef Mudrak EL, Johnson SE, Waller DM (2009) Forty-seven year changes in vegetation at the Apostle Island: effects of deer on forest understory. Nat Areas J 29:167–176CrossRef National Climatic Data Center (NOAA) (2013). http://​www.​ncdc.​noaa.​gov/​cdo-web. Accessed 18 Dec 2012 National Park Service (2008) Catoctin selleck screening library Mountain Park final white-tailed deer management

plan, Cilengitide Frederick and Washington Counties: environmental impact statement. FES 08–58. National Park Service, Denali National Park and Preserve, p. 340 NatureServe (2006) Observational Data Standard. http://​www.​natureserve.​org/​prodServices/​pdf/​Obs_​standard.​pdf.  Accessed Dec 2013 NatureServe (2011) International ecological classification standard: terrestrial classifications. NatureServe Central Database, Arlington, p 80 Pfeifer M, Widgand K, Heinrich W, Jetschke G (2006) Long-term demographic fluctuations in an orchid species driven by weather: impactions for conservation planning. J Appl Ecol 43:313–324CrossRef Porter WF (1991) White-tailed deer in eastern

ecosystems: implications for management and research in National Parks. Natural Resources Report NPS/NRSUNY/NRR-91/05, Washington, DC Rasmussen HN, Whigham DF (1998) The underground phase: a special challenge in studies of terrestrial orchid populations. Bot J Linn Soc 126:49–64CrossRef Reger JP, Cleaves ET (2008) Draft physiographic map of Maryland and explanatory text selleck inhibitor for physiographic map of Maryland. http://​www.​mgs.​md.​gov/​coastal/​maps/​physio.​html. Dolutegravir manufacturer Accessed April 2012 Rooney TP (2001) Deer impacts on forest ecosystems: a North American perspective. Forestry 74:201–208CrossRef Rooney TP, Dress WJ (1997a) Escaping herbivory: refuge effects on the morphology and shoot demography of the clonal forest herb Maianthemum canadense. J Torrey

Bot Soc 124:280–285CrossRef Rooney TP, Dress WJ (1997b) Species loss over sixty-six years in the ground-layer vegetation of heart’s content, an old-growth forest in Pennsylvania, USA. Nat Areas J 17:297–305 Rooney TP, Waller DM (2003) Direct and indirect effects of deer in forest ecosystems. For Ecol Manag 181:165–176CrossRef Roseberry JL, Woolf A (1991) A comparative evaluation of techniques for analyzing white-tailed deer harvest data. Wildl Monogr 117:3–59 Ruhren S, Handel SL (2000) Considering herbivory, reproduction, and gender when monitoring plants: a case study of Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum). Nat Areas J 20:261–266 Ruhren S, Handel SL (2003) Herbivory constrains survival, reproduction, and mutualisms when restoring nine temperate forest herbs. J Torrey Bot Soc 130:34–42CrossRef Russell FL, Zippin DB, Fowler NL (2001) Effects of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus on plants, plant populations and communities: a review. Am Midl Nat 146:1–26CrossRef Schmidt MF (1993) Maryland’s geology.

In trans GSK872 clinical trial expression of RpfR harboring a mutation in the GGDEF motif (changed to GGAAF) complemented the AHL signal production defects of the rpfR mutant (Additional file 2: Figure S2). In contrast, mutation of the EAL motif (changed to AAL) failed to complement the AHL signal production of the rpfR mutant (Additional file 2: Figure S2), To further confirm the change of intracellular c-di-GMP level could affect AHL signal production, we expressed in trans the wspR gene from GSK126 manufacturer Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which encodes a well-characterized

c-di-GMP synthase [20], and the DNA sequences encoding the GGDEF domain of RpfR in B. cenocepacia wild-type strain H111. Bioassay results showed that increasing intracellular level of c-di-GMP by expressing either the c-di-GMP synthase WspR or the GGDEF domain of RpfR in B. cenocepacia wild-type strain H111 caused a reduction of AHL signal production by about 34% and 18%, respectively, compared with the wild type control containing empty vector only (Figure 4).

We then in trans expressed the rocR gene from P. aeruginosa encoding a known c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase [21], and the DNA fragment encoding the EAL domain of RpfR in the BDSF-minus mutant ΔrpfFBc, separately. The results showed that decreasing the intracellular c-di-GMP level by expression of c-di-GMP degradation proteins RocR and the EAL of RpfR increased AHL signal production by about 29% and 46%, respectively, compared with the parental strain ΔrpfFBc (Figure 4). We have shown previously that in trans expression of the c-di-GMP synthase CB-839 cell line GGDEF domain of RpfR diminished the swarming motility, biofilm formation, and protease activity of △rpfFBc,

whereas in tans expression of RocR, a c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase, significantly increased the motility, biofilm formation and protease production of ∆rpfFBc[14]. Similarly, we found that in trans expression of the c-di-GMP synthase WspR diminished the swarming motility (Additional file 3: Figure S3A), biofilm formation (Additional file 3: Figure S3B), and protease activity (Additional file 3: Figure S3C) of ∆rpfFBc to the level of double deletion mutant ∆rpfFBc∆cepI, whereas in tans expression of RocR, a c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase, significantly increased Tolmetin the motility, biofilm formation and protease production of ∆rpfFBc (Additional file 3: Figure S3A-C). Taken together, these results demonstrated that BDSF system controls AHL signal production and influences the bacterial physiology via modulation of the intracellular c-di-GMP level in B. cenocepacia H111. Figure 4 Effect of intracellular c-di-GMP level on AHL signal production. In trans expression of the c-di-GMP synthases, WspR from P. aeruginosa or the GGDEF domain of RpfR, in wild type H111 led to decreased AHL signal production; while overexpression of the c-di-GMP phosphodiesterases, RocR from P.

33WO3 nanoparticle found in related records (PDF 01-081-1244), and V cell was used as 0.361 nm3[19]. Figure 3 XRD patterns and SEM images. XRD patterns (a) and SEM images of as-prepared Cs0.33WO3 before (b) and after (c) the stepwise bead milling process Selleckchem Napabucasin for randomly shaped nanoparticles. The LSPR is reportedly influenced

by the morphology. In tungsten oxide, however, its effect on the NIR absorption characteristics is minor [7]. To consider the randomly shaped nanoparticles fabricated through a solid reaction, depolarization factors were also used as indicated in Equation 7, which assumes an aspect ratio-related factor (S) of 0.417. (7) Incident light reflection by the difference in refractive indices click here between the layers The incident light passing through the coated film is interrupted due to differences in the light velocity caused by differences in the interlayer

refractive index. In a double layer-coated film, this interruption occurs between the layers of different materials (the tungsten bronze-coated layer (1) and the PET substrate (2)), which partially reflect the incident light. As stated in Equation 8, the contribution for the interlayer reflection (T multilayer) has been considered. (8) in which r 1 and r 2 are the refractive GW-572016 in vivo indices of the coated layer and PET substrate, respectively, while θ′ refers to the phase thickness of the coated layer. The reflectance can be calculated using the refractive indices of the coated layer (n 1) and PET substrate (n 2) as stated in Equations 9, 10, and 11. (9) (10) (11) Incident light scattering

according to the size of the nanoparticles Figure 3 reveals the mean diameter of Cs0.33WO3 nanoparticles, which was determined using the image J obtained through TEM and SEM measurements. In a top-down synthesis via the grinding method, the particle sizes are broadly distributed. In these particles, Rayleigh scattering (T scattering) occurs as indicated in Equation 12: (12) in which θ is the scattering angle assumed to be 90°, while n and d are the refractive indices of the nanoparticle. The term R refers to the internanoparticle distance and was calculated using Equation 13 that considers the volume of nanoparticle (V 2-hydroxyphytanoyl-CoA lyase p) and the residual weight (TGA (g)) as measured via thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). (13) The total light transmission and shielding functions for the tungsten bronze film The total LTS characteristics have been measured using the absorbance of the transparent near-infrared absorption film from the visible to the infrared regions. In addition, the calculated value is typically slightly below the measured value due to specimen nonuniformity and plasmon damping caused by surface electron scattering [20]. To consider this type of damping, the results were calibrated via numerical analysis. However, the hard-to-measure electrical conductivity of the nanoparticle was set at 1.03 × 10−8 Ω−1 cm−1.

The boundaries of the blocks are thought JQEZ5 to be hotspots of recombination and insertion. For example, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is located between such blocks [29]. Our study sheds light on the hotspots in genomes for GI insertion using a large scale comparative genomic method. Our results suggest that GIs are likely to be inserted at the block boundaries of genomes of bacteria and other microbes, and sGCSs in these genomes are common separation spots for such blocks. Via a phylogenetic

analysis of each pGI and its homologues, we obtained the evolutionary distance for each pair of homologous pGIs. After studying the correlation between Ds and De, we found that they are positively correlated in regions closer to sGCSs (0-25%), while the correlation is reversed in more distal regions (25 – 50%). The turning point is near 25% region for geomes with two sGCSs. The mechanism underlying this phenomenon is currently unclear but may be caused by genomic rearrangements or deletions. In human pathogens, many PAIs are found in GIs, such as VSP I and II in V. cholerae. However, generally speaking, PAIs and GIs refer to different genomic features. On the one hand, PAIs are sometimes https://www.selleckchem.com/products/cobimetinib-gdc-0973-rg7420.html evaluated by

sequence similarity in other species, and these PAIs do not display abnormal GC content. Additionally, not all GIs are associated with pathogens. For example, in E. coli CTF073, none of the four abnormal GC content regions matches PAIs. These PAIs are different https://www.selleckchem.com/PI3K.html from typical PAIs due to

special genomic rearrangement mechanisms. According to our observations, only laterally transferred GIs and newly acquired GIs are found near sGCSs. Notably, these types of horizontally transferred GIs were discovered in recent emerging infectious diseases and proven to enhance virulence or adaption of such strains [21, 30]. Therefore, GIs are of great importance in revealing the mechanisms of certain epidemic diseases. From MG-132 nmr the observation that GIs are likely to be inserted at genomic block boundaries, we propose that important virulence factors, which are associated with the outbreaks of many common diseases and/or enhanced virulence can be found near sGCSs. Conclusion In this study, in order to do a large scale study on the properties of genomic island, we used 1090 bacterial chromosomes (from 1009 bacterial species) as samples and 83 chromosomes (from 79 archaeal) as controls and separated them into three groups (sCGSs < = 2; 4 < = sCGSs < = 8; sCGSs > = 10) according to the number sCGSs. Interestingly, most of bacteria genomes contain less than 8 sCGSs, while archaeal genomes often contain more than 8 sCGSs. We then searched the genomic sequence for GIs by identifying the genomic segments with GC contents significantly different from the mean value of the genome and detected 20,541 GIs.

The chromatograms of BPA 5 mg/L + TiO2 10 mg/L before and after mixture exposure are shown in Figure 2C, D. This experiment primarily demonstrated that an adsorption relationship between BPA and TiO2-NPs did exist. Adsorption kinetics of BPA on TiO2-NPs Adsorption kinetics was observed for 3 h and the results are presented in Figure 3. The initial concentration of BPA and TiO2-NPs was 5 and 10 mg/L, respectively. The adsorption process of BPA onto TiO2-NPs

was fast. After the adsorption began, the adsorption percentage of BPA on TiO2-NPs increased rapidly and the percentage reached 40% approximately at 5 min. The maximal amount of BPA adsorbed by TiO2-NPs appeared at 30 min, and the value was approximately 70%. The adsorption reached equilibrium basically after 60 min. AG-881 Figure 3 Adsorption kinetics of BPA on TiO 2 -NPs. The effect of TiO2-NPs alone on zebrafish embryos In this study, significant morphological EPZ015666 SB525334 mouse abnormalities were not observed in the zebrafish embryos, when exposed to TiO2-NPs suspensions of different concentrations. The 96-h survival rate of the embryos decreased slightly when exposed

to 40 mg/L TiO2-NPs, but there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups. However, TiO2-NPs were observed to accumulate on the surface of the exposed egg envelopes (Figure 4G, H, J). With increasing concentrations, more TiO2-NPs adhered to and aggregated on the surface of the egg envelopes. When the concentration was increased to 40 mg/L, the egg envelope surface became turbid and difficult to be observed. Figure 4 Effect of TiO 2 -NPs alone and combined toxicological effects of TiO 2 -NPs and BPA on zebrafish embryos. (A-D, I, K) Normal embryonic development of zebrafish. (E, F, I-N) Observed abnormalities (arrows). (G, H, J) TiO2-NPs accumulation (arrows) on the surface of the exposed egg envelopes. Scale bar, 385 μm in (A) to (H) and 1,050 μm

in (I) to (N). Additionally, the hatching rate of the zebrafish embryos was influenced by TiO2-NPs exposure (Figure 5). Compared with treatment groups at lower concentrations and the control group, the hatching rate at 72 hpf of the embryos that were exposed to 40 mg/L of TiO2-NPs was significantly Vildagliptin less (p < 0.05). Figure 5 Hatching rate of the zebrafish embryos. *Significant difference compared to other groups (one-way ANOVA, p < 0.05). The combined toxicological effects of TiO2-NPs and BPA on zebrafish embryos: embryo survival, morphological abnormalities, and hatching rate No effect was observed in the zebrafish embryos of the dilution solvent control group (data not shown). No dead embryos were observed in the dilution water control group. There were no significant differences between the BPA alone-exposed and mixture-exposed groups with BPA at 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/L.

Travel costs, adapted from Nelson (2008), were 72 min per grid cell for natural land cover, 12 for tracks,

6 for rivers or sea, 4 for artificial surfaces, 3 for shipping lanes, 2 for major roads and 1 min for highways. The https://www.selleckchem.com/products/ly3039478.html Economic pressure on each grid cell k is thus equal to the nearest centre’s economic pressure (EPnc) divided by the buy Blasticidin S square-rooted travel cost (in minutes) between them (tcknc): $$ \textEPL_\textk = \text EP_\textnc / \sqrt \texttc_\textknc $$ (2)Here, we defined market centres as cities with more than 50,000 people, yielding 8,518 centres [definition adopted from Nelson (2008)]. We then used a database of gridded world population for the year 2000 (CIESIN 2005) to assign the entire world’s population to their nearest market Epoxomicin centre (in kilometres). We multiplied the resulting combined urban and rural population by the average calorific intake of each market centre’s country (Food and Agriculture Organisation 2006). In order to estimate the effect of trade between centres, we created a 8,518 × 8,518 matrix containing the distance between

all market centres. For each cell, we effectively factored the pressure from all human individuals in the world, weighted by their consumption patterns and channelled by their respective market centres. The global economic pressure on land for the year 2000 is shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 1 Alectinib Economic pressure for year 2000. Economic pressure on land index, resulting from population, consumption and distance to markets patterns. Different colour scales are applied for forests and non-forest areas. Deserts are shaded grey In order to avoid distortion arising from using financial units in a global, long-term

analysis, we used physical quantities for consumption (calorific intake), distance (kilometres) and travel cost (minutes per kilometre). Calorific intake is compatible with our observed variable (global land cover in 2000), as the latter relates to land converted to agriculture and cattle ranching, primarily food producing land uses (see also Goldewijk and Ramankutty 2004). Agriculture and cattle ranching comprise most of the historically converted land globally (Goldewijk and Ramankutty 2004) and our analysis does not include land converted to timber production or urban settlements. Protected areas When projecting the likelihood of land-cover change until 2050, we incorporated the effect of PAs into the analysis, by combining data from the World Database on Protected Areas (IUCN and UNEP 2009) and data from Joppa and Pfaff (2010) that estimate the effectiveness of PAs in each country.